Take -off and fall of the UFTI

The history of the Ukrainian (now Kharkov) Physics and Technical Institute founded in 1928 . One decade is both a rise to the level of physicists of a scientific center respected by the world, and an incomprehensible defeat, transformation into an ordinary “scientific office”, which darkness. The scope of repressions, the arrests of the world -famous Soviet and foreign scientists on their scale lead events far beyond Kharkov - this is a significant part of the history of world physics. And not only physicists ...

First Director

We cast a glance at those years. As always, everywhere and everyone, the usual “living life” with the pendulum of her sorrows and joys. In the country, industrialization. Five -year plan. Forced selective encouragement of science. The starvation of millions in the villages, half -starved life on cards in cities. The former peasants, who found themselves in the ranks of the “Hegemons”, are not ready to manage industrial equipment. A huge number of breakdowns and accidents leads to injuries and the death of workers. First of all, Donbass miners ...

"Disgoverners" found. In 1928, the Shakhty case was staged (officially - the case of economic counter -revolution in the Donbass). Here they are - 53 engineers and technology, conducting a secret war against their people, against fighting for the universal happiness of the party! The word said: "Pest." The chairman of the court is the former Menshevik, who signed the arrest warrant of Lenin, - Andrei Yanuarievich Vyshinsky.

A year later, the next judicial farce is the case of the industrial party. On the bench of the defendants are generals of engineering science. As the process was prepared, now it is known ... The main accused is Professor Leonid Konstantinovich Ramzin - an assistant to a biased investigation, i.e. provocateur. Volunteer? It is hardly. Probably used both the whip and the gingerbread. For the direct -precise boilers developed later in prison, he received an order, freedom, a department.

The situation in Soviet science has been studied by American expert Lauren R. Graham (Loren R. Graham) for many years. Experience suggests that his assessments are usually close to the truth. “ It seems ... that by the end of the 1920s, every second engineer was arrested in the Soviet Union ... The percentage of the arrested scientists was apparently lower than among engineers ... In the fall of 1928, 648 employees of the Academy of Sciences were subjected to“ cleaning ”. According to official figures, 19% of employees were dismissed or arrested. But the peak “Cleaning” will come only in 1937! "From the list 47 of the most famous of the arrested scientists (13 shot) I chose the victims until 1931 inclusive. Four were shot: vice presidents of the Ukrainian and Belarusian Academy of Sciences, director of the Institute of Microbiology, Chairman of the Moscow Technical Society. No great noise.

After Shakhtinsky and the industrial Party, they activated the training of specialists from socially close semi -literate nominees. Having received diplomas from the trembling hands of teachers for the correct, working and peasant origin, they especially hated the old “specialists”, were faithful and obedient to the authorities that made them “all”. The requirements for students and programs had to be significantly reduced. It is fair to note the frequent encouraging exceptions: the talented and enthusiastic managed to take more than they were given.

On May 16, 1928, in Kharkov - then the capital of Ukraine - at a representative meeting in the Supreme Economic Council (the Higher Council of the National Economy) of the Ukrainian SSR, the speaker was Aram Fedorovich Ioffe. He, in particular, said: " In the first ten years of Soviet power, physicist concentrated in the cities of Moscow and Leningrad ." This process “ pumped all talents from the country ... The time has come ... the creation of institutions on the periphery ... The institution that should be connected with the industry should be where there are plants ... It is advisable to create the center in Kharkov ... there should be ... a laboratory of low temperatures ... It is very important that it has a central position in the Union .”

It was proposed to consider the new institute the new institute for a branch of Leningradsky. After a positive decision, Joffe continued to actively help the formation of his brainchild. He achieved from the authorities of Ukraine solid and timely foreign exchange allocations.

A large group of employees arrived from Leningrad. The director was appointed large physicist Ivan Vasilievich Obraimov (1884–1981). In an incredibly short time, he managed to build the main building of the institute, residential buildings, mechanical and glassbuilding workshops, a scientific library, purchase new equipment and first -class instruments (for the most part - imported), break the garden and flower beds throughout the institute. Obraimov outlined the main areas of scientific research and gathered a group of young talented ambitious physicists. The “old man” was 35 to the director.

Three heads of laboratories - K. D. Sinelnikov, A. I. Leipansky, A.K. Walter - later gained wide fame. The main theorist was the future Nobel laureate Lev Davidovich Landau. Consultant - George Antonovich Gamov. To create a new center of cryogenic, i.e. low -temperature research, Lev Vasilyevich Shubnikov (1901–1937) was transferred here. From 1926 to 1930, a young scientist worked in Leiden in the first of three cryogenic laboratories operating in the world. There he became the co -author of the opening of the effect of Shubnikov - de Gaaz, the importance of which was appreciated in 1950-1960.

If A. I. Leipunsky and K. D. Sinelnikov can be considered the founders of nuclear-physical science in the Soviet Union, then with no less foundation the palm of the championship in low temperatures should be given to I.V.Vreimov and L. V. Shubnikov. The side effect of "landing" is an improvement in the training of physicists at a local university.

They invited antifashist foreigners. Friedrich Houtermans (1903–1966) in 1929 expressed the generally accepted thought of the merger of light nuclei (thermonuclear reactions) as a source of stars. The first to pay attention to Plutonium as raw materials for the manufacture of an atomic bomb ... His Kharkov work was made in collaboration with L. V. Shubnikov, I. V. Kurchatov and other Soviet scientists. And much later, in 1951, in London, he published a book about the methods of obtaining confessions in the NKVD dungeons ...

The level of two friends was quite high - K. B. Weiselberg and A. S. Weisberg, as well as several other emigrants.

UFTI and NKVD

The beginning of the last century, before the Second World War, was the Golden Age of physics. Europe had a serious physicists of about 300. They all knew each other. Often met at different conferences, “forums”, symposia ... They did not do secrets from plans and work. The internships in “alien” laboratories and friendly meetings that passed into fruitful discussions were common. Until 1933, Soviet scientists also participated in such exchange. Houtermans wrote his first article with Gamov, who trained in German Gettingen. For almost a decade and a half, he worked with Rutherford in England P.L. Kapitsa. The wife of K.D.Sinelnikova is an Englishwoman. I recall the caricature depicting the seminar of Niels Bor. The head of the seminar asks the speaker Dau (Landau) to allow him to say at least one word. Foreigners came to work in UFTI in 1935. And scientists are by no means the second echelon ...

About the work of the institute. In cryogenic studies, first -class results received shubniks. He began with the creation of a technical base, the development of structures and technology for the manufacture of vessels for storing liquefied gases (Duars). Installations for gases were mounted, including hydrogen and helium (before that, liquid helium was received only in Leiden). This made it possible to consistently conduct studies of the properties of liquefied and hardened gases - nitrogen, argon, oxygen, methane, etc. Particular attention was paid to superconductors open in 1911, their behavior in magnetic fields. The liquefaction of oxygen and nitrogen was widespread in industry and missile technology.

At the initiative of Leipunsky, UFTs began to successfully develop a new direction - the physics of the atomic nucleus. The young team worked enthusiastically, enthusiastically, together. We lived fun. They believed: “ Until now, there was a Cambridge period in the development of physics, and now Kharkov is coming ,” these are the words of Evgeny Mikhailovich Livshits, later the many years of co -author of Landau.

But the trouble was approaching. In early 1935, some military developments were entrusted to the institute. Previously, the competent director was replaced by obedient. The regional committee noted: " Significant hauling ... of the institute of class-medical and counter-revolutionary elements ." And he decided: " In connection with this ... consider it necessary to clean the institute ."

The former scientific leaders were removed from participation in new developments. It is possible that their unwillingness to limit the freedom of creativity played their role. But the main version is political distrust. Military topics were defiantly raised by salaries. The division into “white and black bone” interfered with serious work.

Against scientists, the director, party and trade union organizations, the Kharkov department of the NKVD, and the regional committee of the party united. Scientists carelessly answered ridicule to the introduction of a secrecy and throughput mode, Landau and Houthermanses attached skips on their backs. One of the employees is to the dog’s collar. Not knowing who the innovations are inspired, they complained about the new director to the Okhmom.

And then the NKVD strikes. One of the employees of Landau was arrested - Moses Abramovich Korets. A friendly reproach was organized at meetings and interrogations. “Convincing” indictment. When still influential Pyatakov and Bukharin intervened, Soviet justice also convincingly refutes the charges. The Kharkov Directorate of the NKVD and the regional committee temporarily surrender and leave UFTI alone. The director is appointed Alexander Ilyich Leipunsky. The former director and his most odious supporters are dismissed.

But the respite was short. Pyatakov and other patrons of UFTI are shot. Bukharin days are numbered. The NKVD management takes revenge for its defeat in the Korets case.

The arrests follow one after another. I will name only familiar names. A. Weissberg was arrested, later issued Gestapo with Hotermans. K. Weiselberg, L. Shubnikov and three of his employees were shot for the 20th anniversary of the Great October. M. Korets stayed in the camp before rehabilitation in 1956. A. Leipansky - in prison for two months. I. Obraimov - two years. Both directors are recognized as innocent at the request of other scientists. For Landau, taken in Moscow, they asked Peter Kapitsa and Niels Bor, and he “cost” exactly one year.

The institute was at the head of the institute. Debe.

Formal accusations are common, uncertain. Evening meetings and tea parties were seen as a meeting on the development of insidious plans ...

Even written by his own hand “recognition” in tone, stylistics, vocabulary, monotony confirm confidence in self -corners. Some accusations are ridiculous. “ By artificially created by him, the squabble created conditions that exclude the possibility of establishing work ... ” “ Halked through the provocations and a squabble of UFTI specialists engaged in defense themes .” The conclusions of investigators are template (and not ridiculous): " As a spy and saboteur, he is exposed by his own confessions, indications ... he confessed: a spy, saboteur, pest ."

The torture has not yet been diversified. “... it happened at midnight on the seventh day of my conveyor (continuous interrogation. - V.V. ). I fought while I had enough strength, but they won me. I had no left but surrender and recognition, ”Vaisberg recalled in his book. Leo Shubnikov was arrested when his wife was expecting a child. Then they drove to her a hospital, threatened to arrest her. She knew how to crush the Cheka.

What did they raise their hand, without hesitation?! Where did they understand ...

Uranium ammunition

I will return to the work of Loren Graham. What prompted him to engage in Soviet science? “ Scientists ... place objects of their research in extreme conditions. Studying the substance at very low or very high temperatures or pressure, dispersing the particles of matter to incredible speeds, killing and dividing the representatives of the fauna or flora, examining the behavior of animals in conditions of stress ... They expect that the results will be informative for cognition of nature in general.

Historians and sociologists of science are in a completely different position. The object of their research is a science itself, but they ... do not have the opportunity to place scientists and scientific process in artificially created and extreme conditions for understanding how the former react and change ... If such extreme situations could be found in the latest history, their consideration would allow us to understand something about science . ”

Discovered, studied. The first conclusions: having suffered a huge damage, Soviet science survived, retained advanced positions in a number of directions. It was crushed by her subsequent fall in financing. It is necessary to carefully study this difficult experience, concludes Graham.

In one of the stories of Ray Bradbury, a man who visited the distant past accidentally kills a butterfly. Returning, he discovers that an insignificant episode from the past has noticeably affected his time. The story is ironic. However, we are not given to evaluate the true meaning of the more noticeable events of history, which, as you know, has no subjunctive mood. Unless think about options, various scenarios.

The ranks of the "Ufins" thinned, the conditions of their work worsened. Nevertheless, under the leadership of the miracle of the German Friedrich Lange, which was not arrested and accepting Soviet citizenship, in 1940, applications were submitted for the creation of a “uranium ammunition” of a large destructive force and to the methods of enriching Uranus. Even before this, the USSR had everything to create nuclear weapons. And there was one more important “advantage” in comparison with all other world - the opportunity not to reckon with your people. No victims for party bonz mean anything. Subsequently, this manifested itself in full force. Since 1950, M.P. Grabovsky published memories of his youth since 1950. When eliminating the frequent on the first accidents reactors, young and not very young enthusiasts left devices outside the danger zone, fixing the dose of radiation. The deception allowed them to continue work. No, not a deception, but a well -known ordinary practice. At the plutonium production plant, a semi -finished product, the final product and the technological process itself were the “weapon of mass destruction” of personnel, children living and future, all residents of the “zone”. Not to mention the inability to break out of there. And the population of neighboring villages? And the prisoners that mined uranium ore?

What way would the world go if the USSR had deployed such work in 1938? Maybe it’s not us with the Americans, but the Americans would steal Soviet atomic secrets? Would military unions adopt other configurations? Spacious for science fiction ...

And the terrible regime gave rise to terrible conflicts. After combat youth - solid maturity. In the system of development of nuclear weapons, before the end of the war, on the basis of UFTI, laboratory No. 1 was created, which again turned into an institute. He received a new residence permit in suburban five -bells, built his village. The closed faculty of the university was created on its base. At the initiative of Kurchatov, Kirill Dmitrievich Sinelnikov in 1944 restores the institute, becomes its next director and opens two new directions - the development of materials for the construction of reactors, and later - the study of plasma physics and the prospects for managing thermonuclear reactions. But for the most part, nuclear physics went to Dubna and Serpukhov.

The UFTI developed a series of accelerators of protons and electrons. The last (in 1970) such a “device” happened to me to see. In the class of accelerators, he was relatively small, but the staff along it moved on bicycles.

Gradually, new institutions were borne from UFTI. Almost all developments were closed. I think the pioneer work was left behind. And so - as if everything is decent ... A lot of buildings, many directions, many topics ... and, undoubtedly, certain successes ...

Victor Vodkin, San Jose