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The end of the logic of the final machines - Alexander Kostinsky continues a series of essays from the history of computer science.

Kostinsky

In past programs, we talked about the origin and initial steps of cybernetics.

In the fifties and sixties, it was in Cybernetics, they concentrated, most efforts and hopes for solving system problems. In many ways, publications appeared, where the same revolution was promised in the field of mental activity that the cars were made, replacing and repeatedly strengthening physical labor. It seemed a little more - a computer translation, recognition of images and speech should have appeared, search in large databases, and even the generation of the necessary knowledge, self -learning automatic machines and, finally, the most important thing - artificial intelligence and management of public processes. Today we will try to figure out why many of these tasks migrated to other scientific and technical areas, and the subject of research has significantly reduced among the cybernetics itself.

The then optimism of cybernetics was supported by the remarkable results of mathematical logic. These results completed the long way of formalizing the language of meaningful logical statements, begun in antiquity. A little story.

The first powerful step in this direction was the logic of Aristotle. For two thousand years, he determined the rules of strictly thinking and formal laws that determine how it is possible, and how to build evidence -based reasoning. Aristotle introduced the concept of axiom - statements accepted without evidence and established the basic principles of deduction, which allowed, based on the axiomes to build accurate chains of judgments. On this foundation, a magnificent building of Euclidean geometry was erected - the peaks of ancient thought.

The next step was taken in 1640, when Rene Descartes, introducing the coordinate system, showed that the visual geometric constructions of Euclid can be replaced with mechanical algebraic operations. Under the influence of the success of Descartes, Gottfried Leibniz developed fragments of logical calculus. He formulated the goal of his research quite in a cybernetic spirit: this is a "new kind of instrument that increases the power of the mind is much greater than any optical instrument once increased the power of vision." Leibniz found that in the theory of syllogisms, Aristotle is incorrect, but did not believe himself, and did not publish work on mathematical logic.

After 150 years, George Buly's work "The Laws of Thoughts" came out. Like Leibniz, he distributed the scope of his research not only to mathematics. "The purpose of the proposed treatise is to explore the most important laws of those actions of the mind, thanks to which reasoning is committed, to give them expression in the symbolic language of calculus and on this basis to approve the science of logic and develop its method."

The first Bulya managed to express logical sentences in algebraic form. He sought to reduce verbal logic to mathematical. Each statement can be true or false. Of the statements with the help of unions "and", "or", "not", "it should" be built on the principle of "if" - "then". The proposals as a result are either true or false. Buleva Algebra looks like an ordinary one, where "or" looks like a sign "plus", "and" to multiply, "should" - on equal terms. Sapers are used to determine the order of action, and on the basis of some of the displayed rules, expression can be simplified. The fruitfulness of the Bule approach is visible on the example of the theorem he proved. Of a certain number n statements by repeated use of unions "," or "and" not "you can build exactly 2 to the degree of 2 to the degree of N different expressions. Such a statement is completely impossible to prove by the methods of Aristotle.

Bulya's approach developed August de Morgan, Benzhemen Pier, Giuseppe Peano, Gotlib Frege. But the decisive step in the strict logical construction of mathematics was taken by 1912 by Bertrand Russell and Alfred Whitehead in three -volume work - "Principles of mathematics." They built a complete and strict system of real numbers. The merger of logic and mathematics seemed so deep that Russell wrote triumphantly: "If there are those who do not yet allow the identity of logic and mathematics, they can be asked to indicate in which link of consistent definitions and deductions from the" principles of mathematics "the logic ends and mathematics begins."

After the First World War, work on electrical networks management systems actively developed. When engaged in a mathematical description of such processes, Claude Shannon showed that it can be represented in the binary form of zero and units not only of the number, but letters and signs. But perhaps the most important consequence of Shannon's work was the implementation of formal logical operations in the form of a circuit of the relay turned on and off. Indeed, after all, every true statement can be attributed to one, and to false - zero. It turned out that by switching the relay, you can create new logically impeccable sentences.

In 1936, Alan Turing came up with a mathematical description of a very simple machine. She has a final number of states that Turing compared with the "state of mind." She can “read” and “write down” the final set of symbols - this is her alphabet or dictionary. The behavior of the machine is controlled by an endless ribbon. She can read the ribbon step by step, move back and forth, write or wash the written and change her internal states. It turned out that the Turing machine during successful programming, having only seven states and four letters theoretically capable of deriving a significant part of pure mathematics.

In 1948, the creator of the architecture of modern computers, John von Neumann, went even further, he mathematically proved that if the Turing machine would operate not with a tape, but by the final number of parts, then it will be able to create vehicles like itself and even more complex ones.

It is not surprising that in such an atmosphere of discoveries and successes of Shannon and McCarti, they asked: “Among the most impudent issues of the science of our time there are two relevant problems - analytical and synthetic. How does the brain function? Is it possible to construct a car that replaces the brain?”

The creation of digital electronic computers after the Second World War, which, with an unprecedented speed, carried out operations with logical and mathematical symbols, approved the idea that computers would soon be able to act as substitutes for the human mind. Cybernetics suggested that the brain has some general integral ability to solve problems. And the ability to think is to adapt this common ability to specific situations. The development of programs for computers was built implicitly on the fact that it would be easy to determine the options for choosing, and they are given ready -made, and the evaluation criteria does not change and simple enough. The solution itself came down to mathematical optimization tasks.

However, it turned out that as soon as the computer program was given a real problem that was not studied in advance - the main difficulty was not in solving the problem, but in its production. With no speed, the car was not able to choose the path from countless alternatives, if pre -person was not very limited to a person’s scope and the selection criteria were allocated. This can be understood by remembering the Bul theorem. The number of logically consistent statements of only eight words will not be able to sort out a trillion of computers with a clock frequency of a processor into one gigaigers for the entire existence of the Universe.

When the cybernetics realized that the preliminary assessment of the situation plays a major role in solving problems, they began to study the work where psychological processes were studied, on the basis of which a person separates the main thing from the secondary. The farther in understanding of the mathematical creativity, which turned out to be similar to creativity in general, mathematicians Dierge Poa and Jacques Adamar advanced advanced. Their results contradicted the then cybernetic approach. It followed that there is no general algorithm for solving problems built on the principles of optimization. Creativity is the path from the known to the unknown. At the same time, knowledge and skills gained earlier play an exceptional role.

The solution process consists in the search for known features in an unknown task, in the hope of finding an analogy, recognizing or recalling some familiar element. The task is simplified or complicated, trying to find the points of contact with past experience. Understanding is gradually growing and at some point a jump arises, insight that distinguishes the area where it is better to look for a solution or even is the solution itself. Only after that does the apparatus of mathematical logic include, to determine it was a guess of the correct or not. That is, creative thinking is divided into three parts. The process of conscious activation of accumulated knowledge, an intuitive leap for a new understanding and a logical assessment of the justice of the result.

When the limited cybernetic approach to solving problems was realized, the observations of the classics of mathematics recalled. Leibniz compared the human mind with Situ, through which small particles are sifted, and wary attention, as the detective grabs the right ones from them. Jacques Adamar quoted Valerie's fields, insisting on the similarity between creativity in science and art: "In order to invent you need to be in two faces. One forms combinations, the other chooses. What is called a genius not so much who combines the one who chooses."

So, it turned out that computers facilitate many types of routine mental work, however, automation of creative thinking is postponed, apparently, for a long time.

But there is no thin one without good. Work in the field of artificial intelligence forced to better look at the natural intellect and gave rise to new scientific areas, such as cogitology, which studies the influence of existing knowledge on human behavior when making decisions. At the same time, the creative results of groups of specialists depend not only on their competence, but also on the organization of work, the nature of leadership, and the degree of interest. If the problem consists in resolving the conflict, then not the true state of affairs and formal logic turned out to be more important, but the logic of natural reasoning and models of the situation in the minds of the arguing.

The dream of replacing thinking has not come true, but now there is a need for a universal language for the humanities, which Leibniz expressed the words: “If we had a generalized mathematics, then the needs in disputes between philosophers would be no more than between the accounts, since it would be enough for them to pick up a pencil, sit down for the griffle boards and say to each other: let's calculate each other.”

Radio "Freedom", the program "Seventh Continent". The Russian government is again trying to steer the Internet. Says Oleg Rodin

Rodin

Again, alarming messages appeared on the Internet: the government is once again trying to introduce tight control over the Russian sector of the World Wide Web. We read the commentary on the Runet News website: “Our government was thinking about virtuality! Runet developed, developed, and has reached ... At first, a variety of politicians and compromising evidence rushed into the network, who managed to stain a significant part of the election campaign in the record time, and after the completion of the elections, it did not have time to rush to catch their trail, as they would have decided that it would be time for the Internet that it would be time for the Internet "Squire."

The topic of total control over the Internet from time to time becomes topical in connection with the introduction of the system of operational -search measures into the computer network, then regarding repeated attempts by government officials to recognize the Internet with all the consequences of the use of the universal network from such recognition, or at least the Russian part - the law on the media. And now they were talking about control over the Internet after a “programmatic” performance by one of the Russian officials who stated the need to introduce mandatory registration as the media - all sites “claiming publicity”. That is, in fact, all 18 thousand online addresses registered in the RU zone-the Russian sector of the global Internet.

On the eve of the New Year, the Government House took place a working meeting of Vladimir Putin with representatives of the Russian Internet. Within an hour and a half, they discussed issues of legislative regulation of the Russian network sector. In particular, the Minister of Communications and Informatization Leonid Reyaman announced the plans of his department for the transfer of the management space of the RU zone of the newly created structure - the "registry operator of domain names". The project, already submitted for the signature of the country's top leadership, intends to make a name on the Internet a mandatory requisite of most organizations and oblige them to “post an official site at your own address on December 31, 2000”, as well as publish all the official information on it.

There are other interesting provisions: for example, to oblige the official websites of organizations only in the Russian Internet sector and “only on servers of providers with proper license” (apparently, in order to simplify the control of special services for the maintenance). Whereas today many organizations working or planning to enter the foreign market have registered international domains in the COM zone. In addition, both for legal entities and citizens legally introduced liability for the reliability of the information posted on the site. That is, the Internet in this case turns from a free communication environment into a rigidly regulated structure, where to accommodate several lines you will have to get more than one piece of paper and go through more than one bureaucratic coordination.

Anton Nosik on the Vesti.ru website in the article “Internet Visiting Putin” spoke in detail about this meeting. And on the site "Polit.ru" published "a pure report on Putin's meeting with the Internet." According to its author, Kirill Rogov, the Internet is not in itself any media; The Internet is an information environment that does not belong to the governments, commercial organizations, or even providers; Internet access is the private right of citizens and it cannot be limited by licenses or regulated by the state - this is the meaning of the technological and intellectual revolution; And it is from this that the government should proceed, and the struggle with this fundamental fact will be similar to the 20-year struggle of Soviet power with the Xerox apparatus; In addition, to establish a body that monitors the Internet and all sorts of excesses in it is the same as instructing the ministry to monitor the inscriptions on the fences.

So far, Vladimir Putin promised that the government would not accept any restrictive norms without coordination with Internet figures. After this meeting at the top on the network on different sites, discussions of projects dedicated to the legislative regulation of Runet continue, namely: "On the procedure for the allocation and use of domain names in the Russian sector of theInternet and" On the registration of network media ".

On the Internet you can find various comments on them, for example, at the addresses of Vesti.ru sites, Polit.ru , Lenta.ru , the network " Russian magazine ", and others.

"Providers do not like the regulation of the network" - this is a message on the website of Russian providers . As the editorial office became known, a group of Russian Internet providers is currently preparing a collective appeal to the acting President of the Russian Federation V. Putin. This is an assessment of the negative consequences of the adoption of regulations on state regulation in the field of domain distribution in the .ru zone and the mandatory registration of web sites as the media. According to experts, the consequences of such ill -conceived decisions will be a significant outflow of money from Russia, a decrease in tax revenues, a decrease in the number of jobs in the field of high technologies and the associated leakage of highly qualified personnel abroad.

"Have you played?" “This is a question from the commentary of Nikolai Efremov on the website of“ News Runet ”: freedom and permissiveness are far from the same thing,” the author believes. A true freedom is possible only in a civilized society. And in the house of insane - no, because sick people who are not capable of reasonable self -restraint can cripple themselves and others. Why are these reasoning? But what. Performance, reigning in Runet, is perceived by many as freedom. “Freedom” include compromising discharges, irresponsible statements and statements, drug propaganda, pornography, mat, etc. , not realizing that this is only a “foam” that compromises genuine spiritual freedom. And to the one who raises the conversation about the need for reasonable self -regulation, the label of the "enemy of freedom" and "Afire of Censorship" is glued. Well, 2000, it may well put the beginning of a new stage in the development of Runet - under the control of the government. В этом плане показателен проект постановления "О государственной регистрации сетевых СМИ", фактически не делающий разницы между крупным информационным порталом и домашней страничкой, посвященной любимой кошечке. Правда, пока это проект. Однако в той или иной редакции, но он, похоже, все же будет принят, ибо Рунет сегодня, увы, не способен к саморегулированию и самоуправлению, в нем нет достаточно организованных здоровых сил, способных отстаивать интересы пользователей сети - не какой-либо небольшой группы, а всех пользователей русскоязычного Интернета."

Не все пользователи так категоричны, есть мнения и другого плана, вот, например, что пишет Андрей Степанов из Санкт-Петербурга на тот же сайт "Новости Рунета": "У нас уже есть госрегистрация предприятий всех форм в различных учреждениях. И к чему это привело? К обычному изыманию денег из предприятий и организаций. Причем не только и не столько в казну! Берут все и за все. Справку получить - плати, подпись поставить - плати... Про ежемесячные "налоги" от всяких пожарников и СЭС я просто молчу. Все эти левые платежи отражаются впрямую на цене продукции и товаров. Так что, по моему мнению, это просто очередная попытка заполнения дыр в бюджете. Да, регулировать каким-то образом этот процесс в Рунете надо, но... На Западе существуют многочисленные службы, занимающиеся "отловом" и "отстрелом" сайтов сомнительного содержания. Результат? Эти сайты продолжают плодиться и размножаться без особых потерь. Если затевать что-то подобное у нас, то не через государство! Дороже встанет! Может быть, провайдеры организуются? А вообще-то, не представляю себе, как государство все это собирается контролировать, если даже за банковскими операциями уследить не может!"

В одной из предыдущих дискуссий на тему контроля и регулирования Интернета уже приводился вопрос: не считать ли средством массовой информации даже забор, на котором любой желающий может написать что вздумается. Можно еще спросить - является ли таким средством массовой информации легендарный Гайд-парк, где гарантирована свобода слова любому выступающему? А далее по аналогии понятно, что Интернет - тот же Гайд-парк в электронном виде и считать его средством массовой информации, вероятно, так же нелепо, как, например, типографии, машины доставки печати или армию газетных продавцов в киосках и на улицах всего мира.

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