Vladislav Savin. Son of Heaven as the most humane person

The recent discussions about educational reform in Russia force us to take a closer look at the modern and historical experience of Russia’s neighboring civilizations: China, India, Central Eurasian Muslim countries, the West-Central European world, the USA, Latin America, etc. - and understand the reasons for the successes and failures of educational systems in these civilizations.

This article will offer readers a brief analysis of the philosophy of Neo-Confucianism, which underlies the ideology of state examinations in China of the Ming (1368-1644) and Qin (1644-1911) dynasties, in order to show what values ​​were proclaimed - explicitly or implicitly - public examination system in imperial China.

History of public examinations in China

The education system in Imperial China of the last two dynasties was fundamentally different from the usual (for us) system of public education. The education system was aimed almost exclusively at finding and training a small number of talented and erudite scribes, primarily in the field of Chinese classical literature, history and art, capable of becoming high-class mandarin officials and governing the state. The following example can clearly demonstrate this. In 1850, approx. 2 million people, of whom passed the exam and received the title of “Shen Yuan” approx. 30,000 people (1.5%); out of 30,000 “Shen Yuan”, only 1,500 people (5%) passed the exams at the provincial level, and out of 1,500 who successfully passed the provincial exam, only 300 people (20%) passed the capital state exam and received the most honorable title

Thus, the pass rate at the county, provincial and metropolitan levels was 0.01% (or 1 in approximately 6,000). If we also take into account the fact that exams were held every three years, the peculiarity of the state examination system in Imperial China will become obvious. The explanation for this phenomenon lies, apparently, in the fact that the number of official positions in imperial China was limited to 20 thousand people 1 .

True, applicants who received a fairly good education, but failed due to strict selection exams, entered the service, engaged in trade, art, etc., thereby trying to justify the investments made in education, brought the “fruits of enlightenment” to Chinese society and thereby created the "broadest" educational effect. In addition, the state examination system was one of the cornerstones of the stability and legitimacy of power in imperial China, which follows at least from the fact that the collapse of the state examination system at the beginning of the 20th century (in 1905) turned out to be one of the reasons for the Chinese revolution of 1911, which led to followed by the fall of the Qin Dynasty.

The philosophy behind the ideology of the public examination system in China

The first mentions of the education system and some forms of state examinations in China date back to the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050 BC - 221 BC), however, the form of state examinations, the ideology of which will be discussed, arose during the period Sun Dynasty (960 - 1279) and, despite numerous upheavals, lasted for almost a thousand years (until 1905).

State exams tested knowledge of the classic books of Chinese orthodoxy: the so-called Four Books and Pentateuch. Answers to the questions asked of applicants during the exam were impossible without a thorough knowledge of these sources, since they recorded the values ​​of Chinese civilization and Chinese classical culture.

It was especially important for candidates, with the help of the Four Books and Pentateuch, to give correct answers to the following questions:

1. What should a person's behavior be? Should he overcome himself and observe the customs prescribed by tradition? Or does he have the right to live in “absolute freedom” without any restrictions?

2. What is moral and what is non-moral?

3. What is the relationship between public and private interests in a person’s life? What should be more important for a person: public or private?

The answer to the first question was given in the Four Books by Confucius in his “Sayings”: “To be human means to conquer yourself and return to ritual. If one day you conquer yourself and return to ritual, everyone in the Celestial Empire will agree that you are human. From yourself, not from others, the acquisition of humanity depends [...] Do not look at what is alien to the ritual, do not listen to what is alien to the ritual, do not say what is alien to the ritual, do not do anything that is alien to the ritual."

Humanity meant overcoming oneself, that is, overcoming one’s own egoistic desires, and orienting one’s behavior towards the observance of rituals and traditions reflecting “heavenly principles.” The mythical rulers who ruled Golden Age China (c. 3000 BC) reflected the “heavenly principles” in the traditions of their time, and since ritual comes from the traditions of the Golden Age, observing the ritual is important for following the “heavenly principles”.

The answer to the second question was given in the Pentateuch. One of the five books says that the human mind, if it strives to satisfy egoistic desires (primarily bodily ones), constantly rushes about and cannot be a source of morality, moreover, it only removes it from a person. Moral is that which leads to humanity, understood as described by Confucius, and that which reflects the “heavenly principles” (which, although constantly undergoing transformations, remain unchanged in their essence): “The human heart is restless. Morality is subtle. and invisible. Only having a unique goal can you quickly reach the Middle." Thus, it is moral to observe ritual and tradition.

At the same time, morality requires discipline of the body and mind, aimed at observing certain rules. Without them, the non-moral prevails over the moral, the moral recedes, and the “heavenly principles” are removed from humanity.

The answer to the third question is closely related to the answers to the first two questions and can also be found in the Pentateuch: the ruler of the Zhou dynasty, addressing his officers, requires them to concentrate their efforts on public tasks, on the importance of the distinction between “want” and “should” and preference for “need” over “want” 2 . Orientation towards public interests is more important and necessary than satisfying egoistic desires; it is a projection of morality onto human behavior, because it allows one to overcome oneself, be humane, follow ritual and tradition, and therefore “heavenly principles.”

The answers to all three questions are closely related to each other: in fact, by overcoming oneself, following ritual and tradition, a person observes “heavenly principles” (question 1); observing the “heavenly principles”, a person - thanks to the discipline of body and thought - orients himself to the only thing that is unchangeable, and accordingly, becomes moral (question 2); being moral and observing “heavenly principles” in the form of ritual and tradition, a person, wishing to remain so in the future, sees in the aspiration for the socially useful the most important support for his own efforts for self-overcoming, discipline of body and thought, orientation towards morality and observance of “heavenly principles” in the form of ritual and tradition (question 3).

Consequences for the legitimacy of government

As a result, during the exams, applicants had to demonstrate, to one degree or another, an understanding of the world as a place in which “heavenly principles” can manifest themselves in an individual only if he behaves morally, that is, overcomes himself and his own selfish aspirations, follows ritual and tradition , discipline of the body and mind, as well as the orientation of one’s behavior towards the socially useful and understanding of man as a being who can easily escape his human essence, indulging in his own selfish aspirations, but thanks to self-overcoming, following ritual and tradition, as well as the orientation of one’s behavior towards the public can retain its humanity.

The reason why this ideology led to the legitimacy of power in the eyes of the educated class of China and ensured its support for the ruling dynasty is obvious: the emperor, understood as the “son of heaven” and a follower of the mythological lords of the Golden Age, personified the “heavenly principles” and morality itself. Supporting imperial power was, therefore, a moral matter and corresponding to “heavenly principles,” that is, the only constant in an ever-changing world.

The philosophy described above, which underlay the ideology of the public examination system in imperial China, was relevant for 1000 years until the 20th century thanks to constant improvements and largely ensured the stability of Chinese society. Although this philosophy has been subject to serious criticism in recent times, both as a result of the “discovery of China” by Western countries and Russia (and the subsequent social catastrophes), and as a result of philological research in China itself, some echoes of this philosophy (some continuity) still exist pores in the educational system of China.

Notes:

1 For example, the county, provincial and metropolitan government employed a total of 20,400 and 24,680 officials in 1500 and 1625, respectively. As is known, at the beginning and end of the Ming Dynasty, the population of China was 70 million and 130 million people, respectively.

2 "The Lord said: O my faithful servants, be careful in the performance of your duties. Having given an order, see to it that it is carried out and do not allow its non-compliance. With the help of social orientation, overcome your selfish aspirations, and people will follow you."