Translated material
Great depression in the US "helped Hitler to become a Fuhrer
Adolf Hitler fought for power for years - at first he wanted to arrange a revolution, and then he decided to get it through the elections - which he did. For a few months after that, all parties were banned, except for the Nazi, independent media were closed and trade unions were dissolved. How democracy helped establish a dictatorship - in the material of " Cold ".
Offended Germans themselves transferred power to his hands, although they were warned of the consequences
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Adolf Hitler was born in 1889 in a poor rural family in Austria-Hungary. His father, Alois, was a poor official . He had many children from different women. Hitler's mother Clara - his third wife - was in close relationship with him, therefore, in order to make a marriage, they asked for a special permission of the church.
His father died in 1903, his mother was seriously ill, so Hitler had to leave his studies at the Linz City School. He dreamed of an artist’s career and at the age of 18, having dealt with an inheritance and receiving an orphan pension, he went to Vienna to enter the Academy of Arts. However, he failed the entrance exams twice.
In those years, Hitler walked a lot, painted and read. Not far from his house, the Ostara magazine, published by the former monk, Yorg Lanz von Libenfels, was distributed . They wrote about the “struggle of the Aryans” against “inferior races” and called for the creation of the Order of “Blond Masters”. Hitler became a devoted reader of the magazine, and, as Lanz von Libenfels later recalled, he came to him for the old numbers - "young, pale and modest."
"He was not a revolutionary"
Having lived in Vienna until 24 years old, Hitler moved to Munich - a city known in those years as the center of creative intelligentsia. There he lived alone and earned a living by drawing postcards. A year after his move, on June 28, 1914, the First World War began.
Although Hitler was a subject of Austria-Hungary, on August 3, he submitted an application by a volunteer in the army of Germany-in the 16th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment, and received a summons on August 4. He later wrote that this period became the "most unforgettable and the greatest sometimes" of his life.
Returning from the war, Hitler lived and worked part -time in the barracks, not knowing where to go further. There he was offered to go to “citizenship courses” - lessons on history, economics and politics that were arranged in the army for soldiers. For the first time, he publicly spoke to the audience and noticed that he was able to keep the public's attention with his speech.
In the fall of 1919, on the advice of officers, Hitler joined the political circle of the German Workers' Party. The party was then very small, it gathered in the basement of the Bavarian Beer and consisted of several dozen people. Thanks to his oratory talent, Hitler soon began to answer in this party for campaigning: he printed leaflets, hung ads and performed with emotional speeches at first before hundreds, and soon before thousands of listeners.
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In April 1920, Hitler finally left the army in politics. By that time, he had already developed a corporate identity: aggressive, easily memorable slogans and emotional performances that attracted more and more supporters. Soon, the German working party was renamed the National Socialist German Labor Party (NSDAP-NSDAP, NationalSozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei). The former military was attracted to the party and formed assault detachments (SA).
Hitler attached great importance to symbolism - flags, uniforms, ceremonies, and also introduced his “Roman” greeting, which the party supporters greeted each other. In the same 1920, the NSDAP, by decision of Hitler, acquired the right newspaper Völkischer Beobachter and began to spread the propaganda of her ideas through it.
“He was not a revolutionary, he was just a lonely person,” Hitler described in his youth his biographer and specialist in German history Joachim Fest.
Revolution and the Reichstag
In November 1923, Hitler was preparing a coup: he was going to seize power in Bavaria (federal land in southern Germany, whose capital is Munich) and then go to Berlin. With the attack aircraft, he burst into the beer Burggerbrokeller, where Bavaria’s leadership and the local intelligentsia gathered. Threatening with weapons, he forced politicians to join the uprising and announced the creation of the Provisional Government in the city. This event became known under the name "beer pitch."
On November 9, Hitler's column reached march along Munich. The police opened fire on them, as a result of which 16 patchists and four police officers were guided . Hitler himself escaped, but was soon arrested. At the trial, he pleaded guilty, although he argued that the coup was an act of patriotism. He was sentenced to five years in prison, but was released ahead of schedule after nine months.
Despite the fact that the beer pitch failed, he made Hitler popular. In prison, he regularly accepted visitors, arranged political meetings with cellmates and received letters of support - including from Joseph Goebbels, a young doctor of philology, who then became the Minister of Propaganda of the Third Reich.
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In prison, Hitler wrote the first part of his book Mein Kampf (translated from German - “My Struggle”). It was a mixture of autobiography, ideological manifesto and plan of political actions. The book is written by an elaborate stationery, full of repetitions, contradictions and conspiracy theories. In many problems of mankind, Hitler accused the Jews, and he saw himself as a savior from these "enemies."
After leaving prison in January 1925, Hitler discovered that the situation in the country improved due to the stabilization of currency and American loans: the levels of street violence and unemployment decreased. During this time, the Center forces strengthened, and Hitler's party was banned. To return to politics, he went to the audience with the Bavarian Prime Minister Henry Heldu, and the ban was lifted. But the party changed the direction: it no longer planned the revolution, but fought for power in the Reichstag - the lower house of the country's parliament.
“Instead of gaining power by the power of weapons, we, to the chagrin of Catholic and Marxist deputies, put our noses in the Reichstag. And let them need more time to defeat them by the number of votes than to shoot them, in the end, their own constitution will suck in our hands in our hands. Any legal process is a slow process, ”Hitler wrote in those years to one of his supporters.
But here Hitler did not immediately come to success. The NSDAP members were forbidden to speak publicly, among his supporters the ramps began, the parties lacked money. The party’s radical statements did not find a response from the Germans, who finally received at least some stability. Only drivers, hints and former military were supported by the NSDAP.
Due to the protracted crisis in the party, some of its members began to lean towards left-handed ideas. To stop disagreements, on February 14, 1926, Hitler gathered supporters in Bamberg and accused those who disagree with him of betrayal. After that, he changed the charter of the party and began to personally appoint leaders.
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In the parliamentary elections in Germany on May 20, 1928, the NSDAP gained only 2.6% of the vote. The party took ninth place, and only 12 people passed in the Reichstag from it. Hitler himself could not participate in the elections, because at that time he did not have German citizenship.
"Power of stupidity and mediocrity"
In 1929, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Weimar Republic Gustav Strezeman agreed with the United States on large loans to support industry. However, in order to achieve this, he had to revise the payments of reparations that Germany had to pay after losing in the First World War. Now the country had to pay annually smaller amounts, but the terms of payments were extended. Many perceived this as a humiliating admission of the guilt of the Germans.
For Hitler and his party, this was a convenient reason for the propaganda campaign. Heunited with the influential conservative Alfred Hugenberg, who controlled the large publishing concern Hugenberg Press , which printed more than 1600 newspapers throughout Germany. Hugenberg also helped Hitler make friends with the owners of large companies who began to finance his party, fearing the communist revolution.
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And in October 1929, the stock exchange collapsed in New York: American banks stopped giving loans to German politicians and began to demand debts. Germany had nothing to pay, and the economy was crisis again: factories were closed, thousands of Germans lost their jobs. By the spring of 1930, unemployment affected three million people, and by the fall - already 4.5 million.
Because of this, the popularity of radical forces-communists and Nazis-grew. The central politician Henry Bruning, who had been the post of Reichcanzler since March 1930 (a position similar to the Prime Minister’s post), tried to stabilize the economy with rigid measures: he cut out pensions, increased taxes and reduced government departments. His party did not have a parliamentary majority, but President Paul von Hindenburg allowed him to rule the country with the help of emergency decrees that the parliament could cancel only by voting against them by a majority vote.
These measures and the inability of the parties of the Reichstag to agree with each other caused even more discontent in society. Soon people came to protests: in May 1929, the police shot the Pervomaisian demonstration of the Communists in Berlin. The SA attack aircraft also participated in the dispersal of the left rallies, and also provoked fights with opponents and arranged pogroms.
On September 14, 1930, President Hindenburg decided to dissolve the parliament and hold extraordinary elections. The NSDAP received 18.3% of the vote, becoming the second after the Social Democrats. Hitler managed to attract not only young people, but also apolitical citizens who were disappointed in the republic.
“[Democracy] is the power of stupidity, mediocrity, half -heartedness, cowardice, weakness, mediocrity,” Hitler shouted from the stands that year.
In the spring of 1932, Hitler, who had already received German citizenship, nominated for the president, becoming an opponent of the current president, 84-year-old Paul von Hindenburg, and communist Ernst Telman. He traveled to the 21st city, spoke on the radio and broadcast performances with mobile stations throughout Germany for even greater agitation.
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In the first round of elections on March 13, Hindenburg scored 49.5% against 30.1% from Hitler. In the second round on April 10, Hitler increased his result to 36.7%, but still lost to Hindenburg, which gained 53.05%.
In the last breath
In May 1932, after winning the election, President Hindenburg resigned the Chancellor of Bruning, who lost his trust, and transferred this position to the non -partisan conservative policy of Franz von Papen. To strengthen his position, he secured the support of the NSDAP and lifted the ban on the activities of Nazi assault detachments.
After the election, the situation became even more unstable. Von Papen had no support in parliament, and the NSDAP and the Communists, who together controlled a significant part of the Reichstag, could not agree to work constructively. Because of this, Hindenburg again dismissed the parliament and scheduled the next elections in which the NSDAP won : 37.3% of the vote and 230 seats in the Reichstag.
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During the election campaign, the SA attack aircraft attacked opponents, intimidated members of other parties and arranged clashes on the streets. More than 500 street clashes occurred in Prussia, more than 100 people died, after which von Papen introduced .) In the region, a state of emergency in order to remove the Social-Democratic government from power and transfer control to the military. Everything happened without the approval of the parliament.
Despite the victory of the NSDAP in the elections, the party could not form a parliamentary majority: none of the parties did not agree to enter the coalition with the Nazis. Nevertheless, the influence of the party in the parliament intensified, and Herman Goring, the ally of Hitler, became the speaker of the Reichstag.
In September 1932, the Reichstag expressed distrust of the President and its ministers, and elections were again scheduled for November. The NSDAP again took first place, but received 33.1% of the vote - less than in July. The Nazis took it as a defeat. Joseph Goebbels in the diaries at the end of 1932 wrote : “The hopes completely disappeared”, “We are in the last breath”, “There is no money, no one gives a loan.”
The communists scored 16.9%, and social democrats-20.4%. But the left-wing forces did not unite again: under the pressure of Stalin’s policy, the German Communist Party refused to cooperate with the Social Democrats, calling this party “Social-Fascist”. This made the formation of the parliamentary majority impossible.
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Germany was again in a state of political crisis. Chancellor von Papen remained in power without the support of the Reichstag. In an attempt to find a compromise, on December 2, 1932, President Hindenburg appointed new chancellor General Kurt von Schleicher, a former Minister of Defense. Schleicher hoped to split the NSDAP and place part of the moderate Nazis, but his attempts failed. Without parliamentary support, in this post he lasted less than two months.
By tradition, the chancellor was supposed to be the party leader with the largest number of places in the Reichstag, that is, Hitler. But President Hindenburg treated him with contempt. For several weeks, the country was in political uncertainty: on the one hand, the Nazis had a majority of votes, on the other hand, the president refused to appoint their leader the chancellor.
The way out of this situation was found not through official procedures, but in the backstage negotiations in which key representatives of the German elite participated. Former Chancellor Franz von Papen, who wanted to return to power, saw in alliance with Hitler an opportunity for himself. He invited Hindenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor, but surround him with conservative and monarchist ministers-and he offered himself to be a vice-chancellor. According to his calculations , it would be possible to restrain Hitler's political ambitions. On January 30, 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed by the Reichscanler of Germany.
Fuhrer of the German nation
Three days after that, the Minister of Internal Affairs of Prussia German Goering banned all rallies and demonstrations of the Communists. When the members of the Communist Party protested, they were brutally dispersed by the police: only in the first days after the ban were at least 15 people died, about 150 were injured.
After a couple of weeks, Goering actually gave the police and assault detachments to use violence during detention, if they considered it necessary. The opponents of the NSDAP, and with them, were arrested by the writers, lawyers and doctors that were objectionable to the government. Their apartments were hacked , and the resistant was simply killed.
The retired general and hero of the First World War Erich Ludendorf in letters reproached Hindenburg for the appointment of Hitler. He wrote that he "gave the country to the power of the largest demagogue of all time," and predicted that Hitler "would clap the Reich into the abyss and bring the nation an unimaginable grief." “Future generations will curse you for this act,” he wrote. But the president ignored what was happening, moreover, he had merit to Hitler the reprisal against “uncontrollable” members of the parliament.
Meanwhile, Hitler wanted to hold new parliamentary elections to strengthen his power. Circumstances played his parties into the hands. On February 27, 1933, the Reichstag building caught fire in Berlin. On the spot they detained the Dutch communist Marinus van der Lyubbe. There are different versions of what happened: some believe that it was a Nazi provocation, others that Van Der Lubbe acted alone and suffered from a mental disorder. Be that as it may, the Nazis immediately accused the German Communist Party of organizing arson and began mass repressions.
The next day, Gindenburg, at the request of Hitler, signed an extraordinary decree “On the Protection of the People and the State” . This document actually abolished the provisions of the Constitution on civil rights: the inviolability of the individual and property, freedom of speech, meetings and unions. In just a few weeks, about 10 thousand people were detained, including the leader of the Communists Ernst Telman.
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But even despite the repressions and suppression of the opposition, in the extraordinary elections on March 5, 1933, the NSDAP could not get the absolute majority - it gained 43.9% of the vote. The Social Democrats received 18.2%, the Communists-12.3%. However, due to the arson of the Reichstag, all communist deputies were arrested under the pretext of protecting the state, not allowing them to start work. Так как количество мест в парламенте таким образом сократилось, набранного НСДАП количества голосов хватило, чтобы считаться большинством.
Уничтожение парламентской республики произошло 23 марта, когда рейхстаг принял так называемый «Закон о чрезвычайных полномочиях». Он позволял правительству (президенту и его министрам) и лично рейхсканцлеру издавать законы без участия парламента. Сторонники Гитлера добились его принятия, несмотря на сопротивление социал-демократов.
В конце марта 1933 года нацисты открыли первый концентрационный лагерь в городе Дахау под Мюнхеном — туда начали отправлять коммунистов, социал-демократов и других противников режима на «перевоспитание». Считается , что именно там сторонники Гитлера начали испытывать свою систему физических наказаний и психологического воздействия на людей.
В течение следующих месяцев нацисты ликвидировали всех политических конкурентов: в мае запретили профсоюзы, в июне — Социал-демократическую партию, а в июле — все остальные партии, кроме НСДАП. Вся власть перешла в руки одной партии — и одного человека.
После смерти президента Гинденбурга 2 августа 1934 года Гитлер не стал проводить выборы. Вместо этого он объединил президентские и рейхканцлерские полномочия и 19 августа провел референдум , который провозгласил его «фюрером германской нации». Германия стала тоталитарным государством, где парламент больше не играл никакой роли, а любые формы несогласия жестоко подавлялись.
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Фото:Hulton Archive / Getty Images Автор:Лола Темирова